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Created Date: 2/24/2008 3:21:34 PM.

Basic needs strategy of the 1970s but alas it also lacked a quantified macro- and sector framework. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation”, Psychological Review 50, no. Choice Theory: An Introduction Choice Theory, developed by Dr. William Glasser, is the explanation of human behavior based on internal motivation. Glasser explains in the most recent of his widely read books, Choice Theory, all of our behavior is chosen as we continually attempt to meet one or more of the five basic needs that are. HUMAN NEEDS THEORY, CONFLICT, AND PEACE IN SEARCH OF AN INTEGRATED MODEL∗ H.B. Danesh Although the concepts of human needs, conflict, and peace are interrelated and affect all aspects of human life, academics and practitioners have usually addressed them in a rather fragmented manner.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom[1]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper 'A Theory of Human Motivation' in Psychological Review.[2] Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. He then decided to create a classification system which reflected the universal needs of society as its base and then proceeding to more acquired emotions.[3] Maslow's hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans intrinsically partake in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms 'physiological', 'safety', 'belonging and love', 'social needs' or 'esteem', and 'self-actualization' to describe the pattern through which human motivations generally move. This means that in order for motivation to occur at the next level, each level must be satisfied within the individual themselves. Furthermore, this theory is a key foundation in understanding how drive and motivation are correlated when discussing human behavior. Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met in order for an individual to complete their hierarchy.[3] The goal in Maslow's theory is to attain the fifth level or stage: self-actualization.[4]

Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.[5] The hierarchy remains a very popular framework in sociology research, management training[6] and secondary and higher psychology instruction. Maslow's classification hierarchy has been revised over time. The original hierarchy states that a lower level must be completely satisfied and fulfilled before moving onto a higher pursuit. However, today scholars prefer to think of these levels as continuously overlapping each other.[3] This means that the lower levels may take precedence back over the other levels at any point in time. Others criticized its strict assumption on hierarchy in needs, fails to explain how behavior can be affected within the hierarchy, 3) its weak empirical foundation [7] .

  • 1Hierarchy
  • 3Criticism
    • 3.2Ranking
    • 3.3Definition of terms

Hierarchy[edit]

Alternative illustration as a dynamic hierarchy of needs with overlaps of different needs at the same time
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the crux of the theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to achieve higher level needs.[1][8]

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called 'deficiency needs' or 'd-needs': esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these 'deficiency needs' are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term 'metamotivation' to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.[9]

The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as 'relative', 'general', and 'primarily'. Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need 'dominates' the human organism.[5] Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would tend to be met.

Physiological needs[edit]

Physiological need is a concept that was derived to explain and cultivate the foundation for motivation. This concept is the main physical requirement for human survival. This means that Physiological needs are universal human needs. Physiological needs are considered the first step in internal motivation according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. This theory states that humans are compelled to fulfill these physiological needs first in order to pursue intrinsic satisfaction on a higher level.[3] If these needs are not achieved, it leads to an increase in displeasure within an individual. In return, when individuals feel this increase in displeasure, the motivation to decrease these discrepancies increases.[3] Physiological needs can be defined as both traits and a state.[3] Physiological needs as traits allude to long-term, unchanging demands that are required of basic human life. Physiological needs as a state allude to the unpleasant decrease in pleasure and the increase for an incentive to fulfill a necessity.[3] In order to pursue intrinsic motivation higher up Maslow's hierarchy, Physiological needs must be met first. This means that if a human is struggling to meet their physiological needs, then they are unlikely to intrinsically pursue safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

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Physiological needs include:

  • Health
  • Food
  • Water
  • Sleep
  • Clothes
  • Shelter[10]
  • Sex[10]

Safety needs[edit]

Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, institutional racism etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe. Safety and security needs are about keeping us safe from harm. These include shelter, job security, health, and safe environments. If a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek to find safety before they attempt to meet any higher level of survival, but the need for safety is not as important as basic physiological needs.

Safety and Security needs include:

  • Health and well-being
  • Safety needs against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Social belonging[edit]

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs are seen to be interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. – can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general.

Social Belonging needs include:

According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small. For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, and online communities. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others.[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure.

Self-esteem[edit]

Esteem needs are ego needs or status needs. People develop a concern with getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. Most humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can distract the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem.

Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a 'lower' version and a 'higher' version. The 'lower' version of esteem is the need for respect from others. This may include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The 'higher' version manifests itself as the need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need for strength, competence,[3] mastery, self-confidence, independence, and freedom. This 'higher' version takes guidelines, the 'hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated'.[5] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related.

Basic Human Needs Theory Pdf

Self-actualization[edit]

'What a man can be, he must be.'[5]:91 This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to the realization of one's full potential. Maslow describes this as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.[5]:92 Individuals perceive or focus on this need very specifically. People may have a strong, particular desire to become an ideal parent, succeed athletically, or create paintings, pictures, or inventions.[5]:93 Maslow believed that to understand this level of need, the person must not only succeed in the previous needs but master them. Self-actualization can be described as a value-based system when discussing its role in motivation; self-actualization is understood as the goal-or explicit motive, and the previous stages in Maslow's Hierarchy fall in line to become the step-by-step process by which self-actualization is achievable; an explicit motive is the objective of a reward-based system that is used to intrinsically drive completion of certain values or goals.[3] Individuals who are motivated to pursue this goal seek and understand how their needs, relationships, and sense of self are expressed through their behavior. Self-actualization can include:[3]

  • Mate Acquisition
  • Parenting
  • Utilizing & Developing Abilities
  • Utilizing & Developing Talents
  • Pursuing goals

Transcendence[edit]

In his later years, Abraham Maslow explored a further dimension of motivation, while criticizing his original vision of self-actualization.[11][12][13][14] By this later theory, one finds the fullest realization in giving oneself to something beyond oneself—for example, in altruism or spirituality. He equated this with the desire to reach the infinite.[15] 'Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos' (Farther Reaches of Human Nature, New York 1971, p. 269).

Research[edit]

Recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs, although the hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into question.[16][17]

Following World War II, the unmet needs of homeless and orphaned children presented difficulties that were often addressed with the help of attachment theory, which was initially based on Maslow and others' developmental psychology work by John Bowlby.[18] Originally dealing primarily with maternal deprivation and concordant losses of essential and primal needs, attachment theory has since been extended to provide explanations of nearly all the human needs in Maslow's hierarchy, from sustenance and mating to group membership and justice.[19]

Criticism[edit]

Unlike most scientific theories, Maslow's hierarchy of needs has widespread influence outside academia. As Uriel Abulof argues, 'The continued resonance of Maslow's theory in popular imagination, however unscientific it may seem, is possibly the single most telling evidence of its significance: it explains human nature as something that most humans immediately recognize in themselves and others.'[20] Still, academically, Maslow's theory is heavily contested.

Methodology[edit]

Maslow studied what he called the master race of people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that 'the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy.'[5]:236Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.[21]

Ranking[edit]

Global ranking[edit]

In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridwell found little evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow described or for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.[22]

The order in which the hierarchy is arranged has been criticized as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede.[23] Maslow's hierarchy of needs fails to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies and those raised in collectivist societies. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist societies, focusing on improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs of acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality.[24]

Ranking of sex[edit]

The position and value of sex on the pyramid has also been a source of criticism regarding Maslow's hierarchy. Maslow's hierarchy places sex in the physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective. For example, sex is placed with other physiological needs which must be satisfied before a person considers 'higher' levels of motivation. Some critics feel this placement of sex neglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary implications of sex within the community, although others point out that this is true of all of the basic needs.[25][26]

Changes to the hierarchy by circumstance[edit]

Basic Needs Theory Pdf

The higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety, and love) needs classification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region or geopolitical entity/country.

Basic Needs Theory Of Development

In one study,[27] exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a thirteen item scale showed there were two particularly important levels of needs in the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994: survival (physiological and safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization). In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collected during the Persian Gulf War and US citizens were asked to recall the importance of needs from the previous year. Once again, only two levels of needs were identified; therefore, people have the ability and competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. For citizens in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs regarding importance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990 retrospective peacetime. These three levels were completely different from those of the US citizens.

Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the retrospective peacetime to the wartime due to stress varied significantly across cultures (the US vs. the Middle East). For the US citizens, there was only one level of needs since all needs were considered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs during the war, in the US there were three levels: physiological needs, safety needs, and psychological needs (social, self-esteem, and self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiological needs and safety needs were separated into two independent needs while during peacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the Middle East, the satisfaction of needs changed from three levels to two during wartime.[28][29]

A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.[30] A survey asked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of statements from most important to least important. The researchers found that children had higher physical need scores than the other groups, the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, the esteem need was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest self-actualization level, and old age had the highest level of security, it was needed across all levels comparably. The authors argued that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may be limited as a theory for developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need and the self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.

Definition of terms[edit]

Self-actualization[edit]

The term 'self-actualization' may not universally convey Maslow's observations; this motivation refers to focusing on becoming the best person that one can possibly strive for in the service of both the self and others.[5][non-primary source needed] Maslow's term of self-actualization might not properly portray the full extent of this level; quite often, when a person is at the level of self-actualization, much of what they accomplish in general may benefit others, or 'the greater good'.[original research?]

Human or non-human needs[edit]

Abulof argues that while Maslow stresses that 'motivation theory must be anthropocentric rather than animalcentric,' his theory erects a largely animalistic pyramid, crowned with a human edge: 'Man's higher nature rests upon man's lower nature, needing it as a foundation and collapsing without this foundation… Our godlike qualities rest upon and need our animal qualities.' Abulof notes that 'all animals seek survival and safety, and many animals, especially mammals, also invest efforts to belong and gain esteem.. The first four of Maslow's classical five rungs feature nothing exceptionally human.'[31] Even when it comes to 'self-actualization,' Abulof argues, it is unclear how distinctively human is the actualizing 'self.' After all, the latter, according to Maslow, constitutes 'an inner, more biological, more instinctoid core of human nature,' thus 'the search for one's own intrinsic, authentic values' checks the human freedom of choice: 'A musician must make music,' so freedom is limited to merely the choice of instrument.[31]

See also[edit]

  • ERG theory, which further expands and explains Maslow's theory
  • Fundamental human needs, Manfred Max-Neef's model
  • Human givens a theory in psychotherapy on the nature of human beings
  • First World problem reflects on trivial concerns in the context of more pressing needs.

References[edit]

  1. ^ abMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs[dead link]
  2. ^ abMaslow, A.H. (1943). 'A theory of human motivation'. Psychological Review. 50 (4): 370–96. CiteSeerX10.1.1.334.7586. doi:10.1037/h0054346 – via psychclassics.yorku.ca.
  3. ^ abcdefghijDeckers, Lambert (2018). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. Routledge Press.
  4. ^M., Wills, Evelyn (2014). Theoretical basis for nursing. ISBN9781451190311. OCLC857664345.
  5. ^ abcdefghMaslow, A (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. ISBN978-0-06-041987-5.
  6. ^Kremer, William Kremer; Hammond, Claudia (31 August 2013). 'Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business'. BBC news magazine. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  7. ^ R.Y.M.Li and S.W.Poon (2010). Future motivation in construction safety knowledge sharing by means of information technology in Hong Kong. Journal of Applied Economic Sciences, Volume IV/ Issue 3(9), p. 457-472[1]
  8. ^Steere, B. F. (1988). Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN978-0-88706-620-7.
  9. ^Goble, F. (1970). The third force: The psychology of Abraham Maslow. Richmond, CA: Maurice Bassett Publishing. pp. 62.
  10. ^ ab'Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs'. simply psychology. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  11. ^Maslow, Abraham H. (1996). Critique of self-actualization theory. In: E. Hoffman (Ed.), Future visions: The unpublished papers of Abraham Maslow. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 26–32.
  12. ^Maslow, Abraham H. (1969). The farther reaches of human nature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 1:1, pp. 1-9.
  13. ^Maslow, Abraham H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: The Viking Press.
  14. ^Koltko-Rivera, Mark E. (2006). Rediscovering the later version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Self-transcendence and opportunities for theory, research, and unification, Review of General Psychology 10:4, pp. 302-317. (PDF)
  15. ^Garcia-Romeu, Albert. (2010). Self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 421, p. 26-47 (PDF)
  16. ^Villarica, H. (August 17, 2011). 'Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness'. theatlantic.com.
  17. ^Tay, L.; Diener, E. (2011). 'Needs and subjective well-being around the world'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (2): 354–365. doi:10.1037/a0023779. PMID21688922.
  18. ^Bretherton, I. (1992). 'The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth'. Developmental Psychology. 28 (5): 759–775. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759.
  19. ^Bugental DB (2000). 'Acquisition of the Algorithms of Social Life: A Domain-Based Approach'. Psychological Bulletin. 126 (2): 178–219. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.187. PMID10748640.
  20. ^Abulof, Uriel (2017-12-01). 'Introduction: Why We Need Maslow in the Twenty-First Century'. Society. 54 (6): 508–509. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0198-6. ISSN0147-2011.
  21. ^Mittelman, W. (1991). 'Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation'. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 31 (1): 114–135. doi:10.1177/0022167891311010.
  22. ^Wahba, M. A.; Bridwell, L. G. (1976). 'Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory'. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 15 (2): 212–240. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6.
  23. ^Hofstede, G. (1984). 'The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept'(PDF). Academy of Management Review. 9 (3): 389–398. doi:10.5465/amr.1984.4279653. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-11-12.
  24. ^Cianci, R.; Gambrel, P. A. (2003). 'Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture'. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8 (2): 143–161.
  25. ^Kenrick, D. (May 19, 2010). 'Rebuilding Maslow's pyramid on an evolutionary foundation'. psychologytoday.com/.
  26. ^Kenrick, D. T.; Griskevicius, V.; Neuberg, S. L.; Schaller, M. (2010). 'Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations'. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 5 (3): 292–314. doi:10.1177/1745691610369469. PMC3161123. PMID21874133.
  27. ^Tang, T. L.; West, W. B. (1997). 'The importance of human needs during peacetime, retrospective peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War'. International Journal of Stress Management. 4 (1): 47–62.
  28. ^Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H. (1998). 'Importance of human needs during retrospective peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mid-eastern employees'. International Journal of Stress Management. 5 (1): 25–37. doi:10.1023/A:1022902803386.
  29. ^Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H.; West, W. B. (2002). 'Effects of war-related stress on the satisfaction of human needs: The United States and the Middle East'. International Journal of Management Theory and Practices. 3 (1): 35–53.
  30. ^Goebel, B. L.; Brown, D. R. (1981). 'Age differences in motivation related to Maslow's need hierarchy'. Developmental Psychology. 17 (6): 809–815. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.17.6.809.
  31. ^ abAbulof, Uriel (Dec 2017). 'Be Yourself! How Am I Not Myself?'. Society. 54 (6): 530–532. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0183-0. ISSN0147-2011.

Further reading[edit]

  • Heylighen, Francis (1992). 'A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of maslow's theory of self-actualization'(PDF). Behavioral Science. 37 (1): 39–58. doi:10.1002/bs.3830370105.
  • Koltko-Rivera, Mark E. (2006). Rediscovering the later version of Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Self-transcendence and opportunities for theory, research, and unification. Review of General Psychology 10.4: 302.
  • Kress, Oliver (1993). 'A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation'. Evolution and Cognition. 2 (4): 319–332.
  • Maslow, Abraham H. (1993). Theory Z. In Abraham H. Maslow, The farther reaches of human nature (pp. 270–286). New York: Arkana (first published Viking, 1971). Reprinted from Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1969, 1(2), 31–47.

External links[edit]

Basic Needs Theory Pdf File

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Burton Basic Human Needs Theory

  • A Theory of Human Motivation, original 1943 article by Maslow.

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